Answer the following in about 50 words each: 10 x 3 = 30 marks
9. Define social psychology
Social psychology is the scientific study of how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the presence of others, social interactions, and societal norms. It bridges psychology and sociology by examining individual and group dynamics. Social psychology explores topics like conformity, attitudes, prejudice, group behavior, and interpersonal relationships. The discipline emphasizes the power of situational and environmental factors over personality in shaping behavior. It utilizes empirical methods to study phenomena like social influence, decision-making, and group interactions. By understanding these processes, social psychology contributes to addressing social issues, improving communication, and fostering better intergroup relations.
10. Person Perception.
Person perception is the cognitive process of forming impressions and making judgments about others based on available information. These judgments rely on cues such as facial expressions, tone of voice, body language, and prior knowledge. Factors like stereotypes, cultural norms, and personal biases influence person perception. Errors, such as the halo effect (overgeneralizing positive traits) or the fundamental attribution error (overemphasizing dispositional factors), are common. Person perception affects social interactions, shaping opinions about trustworthiness, competence, or friendliness. It plays a critical role in various settings, including workplaces, relationships, and legal contexts, where accurate judgments are crucial.
11. Characteristics of Ethnography
Ethnography is a qualitative research method focused on studying people and their cultures in their natural environments. Key characteristics include immersive fieldwork, where the researcher observes and participates in daily activities, and the use of interviews and detailed documentation. Ethnography prioritizes understanding social norms, rituals, and behaviors from the participants' perspectives. It is longitudinal, often requiring long-term engagement, and produces rich, holistic data. Ethnographers aim to capture cultural contexts and social interactions while maintaining ethical considerations like consent and confidentiality. This method is widely used in anthropology, sociology, and social psychology to study group dynamics and cultural influences.
12. Prototypes
Prototypes are mental representations of the most typical example of a category. For instance, a robin might be a prototype for the category "bird" because it possesses many features commonly associated with birds, like wings, feathers, and the ability to fly. Prototypes simplify categorization, allowing individuals to quickly process and classify information. They influence perception, memory, and decision-making. However, reliance on prototypes can lead to stereotyping when individuals assume all members of a category share the same traits. Prototypes are culturally influenced and can vary across individuals and societies, reflecting shared knowledge and personal experiences.
13. Door-in-the-face technique
The door-in-the-face technique is a compliance strategy used in social influence. It begins with a large, unreasonable request that is expected to be refused, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request. People are more likely to agree to the second request, perceiving it as a concession. This technique leverages the principle of reciprocity, where individuals feel obliged to reciprocate the perceived compromise. For example, asking someone to volunteer for 10 hours a week may be refused, but they might agree to volunteer for 2 hours. This technique is often used in negotiations, marketing, and fundraising campaigns.
14. Negative-State Relief Hypothesis
The negative-state relief hypothesis suggests that individuals engage in pro-social behavior to reduce their own negative emotional states. When people experience guilt, sadness, or distress, helping others provides an emotional reward, alleviating these feelings. For example, witnessing someone in need may evoke discomfort, prompting a person to donate or assist to feel better themselves. While the behavior appears altruistic, it is partially motivated by self-interest. This hypothesis highlights the interplay between empathy and personal emotional regulation. It has implications for understanding charitable giving, volunteerism, and public campaigns that evoke emotional responses to encourage pro-social actions.
15. Proactive and reactive aggression
Proactive aggression is planned, deliberate, and goal-oriented, often used to achieve a specific outcome, such as gaining dominance or resources. For example, bullying a peer to assert authority is proactive aggression. Reactive aggression, on the other hand, is impulsive and occurs in response to perceived threats, frustration, or provocation. A child hitting another out of anger is an example of reactive aggression. The two types involve different emotional and cognitive processes, with proactive aggression driven by reward anticipation and reactive aggression by heightened emotional arousal. Understanding both is crucial for addressing aggression in contexts like education and mental health.
16. Characteristics of attitudes
Attitudes are learned, evaluative predispositions toward objects, people, or situations. They have three components: cognitive (beliefs), affective (emotions), and behavioral (actions). Attitudes are relatively stable but can change with new experiences or persuasive communication. They guide decision-making, influencing how individuals respond to their environment. Attitudes can be explicit (conscious) or implicit (unconscious). They vary in strength, with stronger attitudes being more resistant to change and more likely to predict behavior. For instance, a person with a strong positive attitude toward environmental conservation is more likely to engage in recycling or advocacy activities.
17. Types of prejudice
Prejudice involves preconceived negative attitudes or judgments toward individuals or groups based on characteristics like race, gender, or religion. Types of prejudice include:
- Racial Prejudice: Discrimination based on ethnicity.
- Gender Prejudice: Stereotyping and unequal treatment of individuals based on gender.
- Ageism: Bias against individuals due to their age.
- Cultural Prejudice: Negative attitudes toward different cultural practices. Prejudice often stems from stereotypes, ignorance, or fear of the unfamiliar. It contributes to social inequality and conflict. Combating prejudice requires education, intergroup contact, and promoting inclusive policies.
18. Important features of group
Groups are characterized by shared goals, interdependence, structured roles, norms, and regular interaction. Members identify with the group, fostering a sense of belonging. Groups influence behavior through social norms, roles, and conformity. They can enhance productivity and decision-making through collaboration but may also lead to challenges like groupthink or intergroup conflict. Examples include families, work teams, and social organizations. Groups play a vital role in shaping individual identity and societal dynamics. Their cohesion, leadership, and communication patterns significantly impact their effectiveness in achieving objectives.
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