Q1. Discuss the ethical issues involved in social-psychological research.
Introduction
Social-psychological studies often involve people’s attitudes, emotions, and behaviour.
Hence, ensuring the rights, dignity, and welfare of participants is essential for scientific and moral integrity.
Main Ethical Issues
Informed Consent
Participants must know the nature, purpose, and potential risks of the study.
Consent should be voluntary and based on understanding.
Deception
Sometimes used to prevent bias (e.g., Milgram’s obedience study).
Ethically permissible only when no alternative exists and participants are debriefed afterward.
Protection from Harm
Physical, psychological, or emotional harm must be avoided.
Researchers must provide support or counselling if stress occurs.
Confidentiality and Anonymity
Personal data must be kept private and used only for research purposes.
Codes or numbers instead of names protect identities.
Right to Withdraw
Participants can discontinue at any stage without penalty.
Debriefing
After participation, subjects should be told the true purpose of the study and reasons for any deception.
Competence and Responsibility of Researcher
Researchers must follow professional standards and report results honestly.
Conclusion
Ethical principles ensure that research remains humane, credible, and socially responsible.
Respecting participants’ rights protects not only individuals but also the reputation and validity of social-psychological science.
Q2. Explain the errors involved in attribution.
Introduction
Attribution is the process of explaining causes of behaviour.
While useful, people often commit systematic errors and biases when making such judgments.
Major Attribution Errors
Fundamental Attribution Error (Correspondence Bias)
Overestimating internal (personality) causes while underestimating situational ones.
Example: assuming a classmate is lazy for being late, ignoring traffic delay.
Actor–Observer Bias
We attribute our own behaviour to external situations but others’ behaviour to internal traits.
Example: “I failed because the exam was tough,” but “He failed because he’s careless.”
Self-Serving Bias
Success → internal attributions (ability, effort).
Failure → external attributions (luck, task difficulty).
Protects self-esteem.
Defensive Attribution (Just-World Hypothesis)
Believing that people get what they deserve, to maintain a sense of justice.
Leads to victim-blaming (“she was careless, so the accident happened”).
False Consensus Effect
Overestimating how many others share one’s opinions or behaviours.
“Everyone cheats a little” — inflates sense of normality.
Halo Effect
A positive impression in one area (e.g., attractiveness) leads to favourable judgment in unrelated areas (e.g., intelligence).
Conclusion
Attribution errors reveal that human judgments are not purely rational but shaped by cognitive shortcuts and self-protective motives.
Recognising these biases helps in developing empathy, fairness, and accurate social perception.
Q3. Discuss the factors affecting attitude change.
Introduction
An attitude is a learned tendency to respond consistently in a favourable or unfavourable manner toward an object or issue.
Attitude change refers to modification of this predisposition due to communication, experience, or persuasion.
Main Factors Affecting Attitude Change
1. Source Characteristics (Who Communicates)
Credibility: Messages from experts or trustworthy communicators are more persuasive.
Attractiveness and likability: Physically appealing or similar communicators influence people more.
Power and status: High-status sources often generate compliance.
2. Message Characteristics (What is Said)
One-sided vs two-sided messages: Two-sided messages (presenting both views) are effective for educated audiences.
Fear appeals: Moderate fear arouses motivation; extreme fear may cause rejection.
Order of presentation: Primacy or recency effects influence recall and acceptance.
3. Audience Characteristics (To Whom)
Intelligence: Highly intelligent people resist weak persuasion but respond to strong logic.
Self-esteem: Moderate self-esteem individuals are most likely to change attitudes.
Involvement: Highly involved people need strong arguments (central route).
4. Channel Characteristics (How)
Face-to-face communication is more persuasive than written messages when emotional impact matters.
Mass media works better for large audiences using repetition and imagery.
5. Situational Factors
Group norms and peer pressure promote conformity of attitudes.
Reinforcement: Reward or approval for changed opinion increases persistence.
6. Psychological Theories
Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger, 1957): Inconsistency between beliefs and actions drives change to restore balance.
Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986):
Central route – logical processing leads to lasting change.
Peripheral route – superficial cues create temporary change.
Conclusion
Attitude change depends on the credibility of the source, strength of the message, and the receiver’s motivation.
Understanding these factors helps design effective communication for health campaigns, education, and social reform.
Q4. Describe the methods of reducing prejudice and discrimination.
Introduction
Prejudice is a negative attitude toward people based on group membership, while discrimination is the behavioural expression of that attitude.
Social psychology provides several strategies to reduce these biases and promote intergroup harmony.
Main Methods
1. Intergroup Contact (Allport’s Contact Hypothesis, 1954)
Prejudice decreases when groups:
Interact under equal status,
Work toward common goals,
Engage in cooperative activity, and
Are supported by social and institutional norms.
Example: Integrated classrooms and mixed-team sports reduce stereotypes.
2. Education and Awareness
Teaching empathy, multicultural understanding, and historical knowledge combats ignorance.
Early socialisation programmes promote respect for diversity.
3. Superordinate Goals (Sherif’s Robbers Cave Study, 1954)
Conflicting groups unite when facing a larger shared objective (e.g., disaster relief).
Cooperation replaces rivalry.
4. Legislation and Social Policies
Enforcing equality laws, reservation policies, and anti-discrimination acts reduce institutional bias.
5. Cognitive Re-training
Encouraging people to focus on individual differences rather than group labels.
Perspective-taking helps perceive out-group members as individuals.
6. Media and Role Models
Positive portrayal of minorities in films, education, and advertisements changes social norms.
Contact through media (“parasocial contact”) fosters acceptance.
7. Group Cooperation and Dialogue
Intercultural exchange, community projects, and interfaith programmes promote mutual understanding.
Conclusion
Prejudice reduction requires both psychological and structural change.
Combining intergroup contact, cooperative goals, and educational initiatives can transform stereotypes into mutual respect and equality.
Q5. Define group and explain the important features and characteristics of a group.
Introduction
A group is a collection of two or more individuals who interact with each other, share common goals, and perceive themselves as a unit.
Groups form the foundation of social life and influence individual behaviour through norms, values, and relationships.
Definition
According to Sherif (1936), “A group is a social unit consisting of a number of individuals who interact, share goals, and have a sense of belongingness.”
Groups may be formal (e.g., committees, teams) or informal (e.g., friends, families).
Characteristics / Features of a Group
Interaction
Members communicate and influence one another directly or indirectly.
Interaction distinguishes a true group from a mere crowd.
Common Goals or Interests
Members work toward shared objectives, providing unity and direction.
Interdependence
Each member’s actions affect others (e.g., in a sports team or work project).
Norms and Rules
Shared standards guide acceptable behaviour and maintain discipline.
Group Structure
Includes roles, status hierarchy, and leadership patterns.
Sense of Belongingness
Members identify with the group and feel emotionally attached.
Cohesiveness
The strength of the group’s unity or solidarity.
High cohesiveness leads to cooperation and loyalty.
Group Size and Continuity
Vary from small (family) to large (organisation); persistence over time gives identity.
Conclusion
A group is more than a collection of individuals—it is a social system shaped by interaction, interdependence, and shared identity.
Understanding group characteristics helps in enhancing teamwork, leadership, and communication in educational, organisational, and community settings.
Q6. Describe the characteristics and steps in the ethnographic method.
Introduction
Ethnography is a qualitative research method widely used in social and cultural psychology.
It involves an in-depth study of people and cultures in their natural settings, focusing on understanding social behaviour from the participants’ point of view.
1. Characteristics of the Ethnographic Method
Naturalistic Setting
The researcher studies participants in their everyday environment rather than a laboratory.
Emphasises ecological validity.
Participant Observation
The researcher immerses themself in the group or community to observe activities directly.
Holistic Approach
Focuses on the total pattern of social life—beliefs, customs, relationships, and interactions.
Use of Multiple Techniques
Combines interviews, observations, field notes, audio/video records, and documents for triangulation.
Inductive Analysis
Patterns and theories emerge from data rather than being imposed beforehand.
Prolonged Engagement
Long-term involvement builds trust and yields authentic data.
Descriptive and Interpretative
Aims to describe behaviour and interpret meanings rather than measure variables numerically.
2. Steps in Conducting Ethnographic Research
Selection of Setting or Community
Choose a natural group (e.g., classroom, tribe, workplace) relevant to the research question.
Gaining Entry and Building Rapport
Obtain permission and establish trust with participants.
Data Collection
Observe interactions, conduct informal or structured interviews, and take detailed field notes.
Recording and Documentation
Maintain diaries, memos, photographs, or recordings.
Data Analysis
Identify recurring patterns, themes, or cultural meanings through coding and comparison.
Interpretation and Reporting
Present a descriptive narrative of the culture or group behaviour in context.
Conclusion
Ethnography provides rich, contextual understanding of human social life.
By combining observation with interpretation, it helps social psychologists explore attitudes, norms, and group dynamics in real-world settings.
Q7. Explain Bem’s Self-Perception Theory.
Introduction
The Self-Perception Theory, proposed by Daryl Bem (1967, 1972), offers a unique explanation of how people form attitudes and understand their internal states.
It suggests that people infer their attitudes and emotions by observing their own behaviour—especially when internal cues are weak or ambiguous.
Main Concepts
Behaviour as a Source of Attitude
According to Bem, individuals look at their own behaviour and the context in which it occurs to deduce what they feel or believe.
Example: If you frequently donate blood, you infer that you have a positive attitude toward helping others.
Opposition to Cognitive Dissonance Theory
While Festinger’s theory assumes tension and motivation to reduce dissonance, Bem argues that people simply observe themselves rather than feel discomfort.
Attitude change results from self-observation, not dissonance reduction.
External vs. Internal Cues
When external rewards or pressures are strong, individuals attribute behaviour to those factors (external cause).
When external cues are weak, they infer that their behaviour reflects internal attitude.
Overjustification Effect
When people are rewarded for behaviour they already enjoy, they may attribute it to external reward rather than internal interest—thus reducing intrinsic motivation.
Example: Paying children for drawing may make them think they draw for money, not for fun.
Applications
Behavioural Therapy: Encourages people to act in desired ways first (e.g., act confidently → feel confident).
Attitude Formation: Helps explain how repeated public behaviour can shape private beliefs.
Empirical Evidence
Festinger & Carlsmith’s $1–$20 Experiment (1959) reinterpreted by Bem:
Participants receiving $1 (low external justification) inferred they must have liked the task, hence attitude change occurred.
Supports self-perception model.
Conclusion
Bem’s Self-Perception Theory highlights that “we come to know ourselves in the same way we come to know others—by observing behaviour.”
It provides a simple, non-emotional explanation of attitude formation and is widely used in behavioural modification, motivation, and social influence research.
Q8. Describe the factors responsible for interpersonal attraction.
Introduction
Interpersonal attraction refers to the positive feeling or attitude one person has toward another.
It forms the foundation for friendship, love, teamwork, and cooperation.
Social psychologists have identified multiple factors influencing attraction, ranging from physical proximity to personal similarity.
Main Factors Influencing Interpersonal Attraction
Proximity (Physical Nearness)
Frequent contact increases familiarity and liking.
The mere exposure effect (Zajonc, 1968): repeated exposure to a person or stimulus increases attraction.
Example: classmates or neighbours often become friends due to repeated interaction.
Physical Attractiveness
One of the strongest determinants of initial liking.
Associated with the “halo effect”—assuming attractive people also have other positive traits (intelligent, kind).
Standards of beauty, however, vary across cultures.
Similarity
We are drawn to people similar to us in attitudes, values, education, or interests.
Byrne’s Law of Attraction (1971): greater attitude similarity → greater attraction.
Similarity provides validation and predictability.
Reciprocal Liking
Knowing that someone likes us increases our liking for them (reciprocity-of-liking rule).
Positive feedback and mutual respect strengthen attraction.
Competence
People are attracted to others who are capable but not perfect.
The Pratfall Effect (Aronson, 1966): highly competent individuals who show minor flaws seem more human and appealing.
Reward Theory of Attraction
We are attracted to people whose behaviour or presence provides rewards (pleasant feelings, help, support).
Relationships are maintained when perceived rewards exceed costs.
Complementarity
Opposite but compatible traits (e.g., dominance–submission) can attract, though long-term harmony still requires value similarity.
Anxiety and Arousal
Shared emotional experiences (fear, excitement) can heighten attraction through misattribution of arousal (Dutton & Aron, 1974, suspension-bridge study).
Cultural and Social Norms
Norms about age, caste, or status affect whom we find acceptable or attractive as partners or friends.
Conclusion
Interpersonal attraction arises from a combination of physical, psychological, and social factors.
Proximity, similarity, and reciprocity play central roles, while emotional experiences and perceived rewards sustain relationships over time.
Understanding these principles helps improve communication, cooperation, and social harmony.
Q9. Explain the theories of crowd behaviour.
Introduction
A crowd is a temporary gathering of individuals who share a common focus of attention and whose behaviour tends to be guided by group emotion rather than individual reason.
Social psychologists have proposed various theories to explain how individual behaviour changes within a crowd.
1. Le Bon’s Contagion Theory (1895)
The first systematic explanation of crowd behaviour.
Individuals lose self-control and rationality in a crowd due to anonymity, suggestibility, and emotional contagion.
A “collective mind” takes over; emotions spread rapidly like infection.
Criticism: Overemphasises irrationality and ignores situational and cultural differences.
2. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory (1921)
In a crowd, the superego (moral control) weakens, allowing the id to dominate.
The leader becomes a substitute for the superego, and individuals identify with him.
Emotional ties to the leader and fellow members explain obedience and emotional unity.
3. Allport’s Individualistic Theory (1924)
Rejects the idea of a collective mind.
Crowd behaviour results from intensified individual tendencies.
The crowd provides anonymity and excitement that release hidden impulses.
Highlights personal responsibility within collective actions.
4. Turner and Killian’s Emergent-Norm Theory (1957)
New norms emerge through interaction among participants.
People look to others for cues on how to behave when usual norms are unclear.
Explains both peaceful and violent crowds.
Example: Protest turning violent when new norms (throwing stones) spread among members.
5. Deindividuation Theory (Zimbardo, 1969)
Crowds create anonymity, diffusion of responsibility, and arousal, reducing self-awareness.
Leads to impulsive, antisocial, or violent acts.
Supported by Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment.
Conclusion
Crowd behaviour can stem from emotional contagion, leadership influence, or newly emerging norms.
Modern social psychology views crowds not as irrational mobs but as goal-oriented groups responding to situational cues and social identity.
Q10. Explain the two-dimensional model of conflict resolution.
Introduction
Conflict is a natural part of social interaction.
The two-dimensional model of conflict resolution (Thomas, 1976; Rahim, 1983) classifies conflict-handling styles based on two independent dimensions:
concern for self and concern for others.
1. The Two Dimensions
Concern for Self (Assertiveness): Degree to which a person tries to satisfy personal needs or goals.
Concern for Others (Cooperativeness): Degree to which a person attempts to satisfy others’ needs.
2. Five Conflict-Handling Styles
| Style | Description | Outcome |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Competing (High self / Low others) | Assertive and uncooperative; person pursues own goals at others’ expense. | “Win-Lose” situation. |
| 2. Avoiding (Low self / Low others) | Unassertive and uncooperative; ignores or withdraws from conflict. | No resolution; issue persists. |
| 3. Accommodating (Low self / High others) | Cooperative but unassertive; sacrifices own interests to maintain harmony. | Useful when relationship is more important than issue. |
| 4. Compromising (Moderate self / Moderate others) | Each side gives up something to reach a middle ground. | “Lose-Lose” but practical in limited-time situations. |
| 5. Collaborating (High self / High others) | Assertive and cooperative; seeks a win-win solution through open communication. | Best long-term resolution. |
3. Applications
Organisational Settings: Managers balance assertiveness and cooperation for team efficiency.
Education: Teachers mediate student conflicts using collaboration or compromise.
Interpersonal Relations: Helps couples, families, and peers manage differences constructively.
Conclusion
The two-dimensional model shows that conflict resolution depends on balancing self-interest and concern for others.
Among all styles, collaboration produces the most sustainable and positive outcomes, promoting both goal achievement and relationship maintenance.
Would you like me to continue with the next two 6-mark answers — on “Conformity and factors influencing it” and “Social impact or social isolation theories” next?
Excellent 👍 Let’s move forward with the next two 6-mark answers from Section B (MPC-004 – Advanced Social Psychology) — presented concisely in the IGNOU answer style.
Q11. Define conformity and describe the factors that increase it.
Introduction
Conformity is one of the most studied forms of social influence.
It refers to changing one’s behaviour or opinion to match that of a group or social norm.
1. Definition
According to Myers (2013), conformity is “a change in a person’s behaviour or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure.”
Classic studies:
Sherif’s (1936) autokinetic experiment → formation of group norms.
Asch’s (1951) line-judgement experiment → yielding to group majority even when clearly wrong.
2. Factors Increasing Conformity
Group Size – Conformity rises with group size up to about 3–5 members, then levels off.
Unanimity – Even one dissenter sharply reduces conformity; unanimous groups create strongest pressure.
Cohesiveness – The more bonded and valued the group, the stronger the desire to conform.
Status and Expertise – People conform more to high-status or expert members.
Public vs Private Response – Public answers heighten conformity; private, anonymous ones reduce it.
Task Ambiguity – Unclear or difficult tasks lead to informational influence.
Cultural Background – Collectivist cultures (e.g., Japan, India) show higher conformity than individualist ones.
Gender & Personality – Individuals low in self-confidence or high in need for approval conform more.
3. Types of Conformity (Kelman, 1958)
Compliance: outward agreement to gain approval.
Identification: adopting views of admired group.
Internalisation: genuine acceptance of group beliefs.
Conclusion
Conformity helps maintain social order but may suppress individuality.
Understanding its determinants allows societies to balance social harmony with independent thought.
Q12. Explain the concept and characteristics of social isolation.
Introduction
Social isolation refers to the state of having minimal contact or interaction with others.
It can be physical (living alone) or psychological (feeling lonely despite company).
In social psychology, it’s studied for its effects on behaviour, emotions, and health.
1. Concept
Isolation differs from solitude; it’s undesired separation from meaningful relationships.
Can occur at the individual level (elderly, migrants) or group level (minorities, marginalised communities).
2. Characteristics / Features
Lack of Interaction – Reduced social communication and participation.
Perceived Exclusion – Feeling rejected or detached from social networks.
Emotional Consequences – Loneliness, anxiety, or depression.
Cognitive Impact – Poor attention, negative self-image, distorted social perception.
Behavioural Withdrawal – Avoidance of social activities or work involvement.
Physiological Effects – Chronic isolation linked with weakened immunity and higher stress hormones.
Social Consequences – Alienation, deviant behaviour, or aggression in extreme cases.
3. Causes
Migration, age, disability, stigma, discrimination, unemployment, or excessive technology use can all lead to isolation.
4. Remedies
Building community support systems, encouraging participation, counselling, and digital literacy programs to reconnect individuals socially.
Conclusion
Social isolation disrupts emotional well-being and social cohesion.
Recognising its causes and promoting inclusion and meaningful interaction are vital for both personal health and societal harmony.
Q13. Explain attribution theory and its applications.
Introduction
Attribution refers to the process of inferring the causes of people’s behaviour and events.
Social psychologists study it to understand how individuals explain success, failure, and social interactions.
1. Major Attribution Theories
(a) Heider’s Naïve Psychology (1958)
People act as “naïve scientists” searching for internal (personal) or external (situational) causes.
Example: A student failing may be blamed on laziness (internal) or tough exam (external).
(b) Kelley’s Covariation Model (1967)
People use three kinds of information:
Consensus: Do others act the same way?
Consistency: Does this person act this way over time?
Distinctiveness: Does this person act this way in other situations?
Combination of these cues determines whether cause is internal or external.
(c) Weiner’s Achievement Attribution Theory (1985)
Classifies causes by locus (internal/external), stability, and controllability.
Example: Failure due to low effort (internal, controllable) motivates improvement.
2. Common Errors in Attribution
Fundamental Attribution Error: Overemphasising personal causes for others’ actions.
Actor–Observer Bias: Explaining own behaviour situationally, others’ dispositionally.
Self-Serving Bias: Attributing success to ability, failure to bad luck.
3. Applications
Education: Teachers’ attributions about students’ ability influence motivation and feedback.
Workplace: Managers’ performance evaluations depend on perceived effort and responsibility.
Health: Patients who view illness as controllable (e.g., lifestyle) show better recovery behaviour.
Legal & Social Contexts: Jurors’ or observers’ judgments of blame depend on perceived intention.
Interpersonal Relations: Misattributions cause conflict; accurate attributions promote empathy.
Conclusion
Attribution theory helps explain how people interpret causes of behaviour and why biases occur.
It has wide applications in education, management, counselling, and social relations, enhancing fairness and understanding.
Q14. Describe prosocial behaviour and the factors influencing helping.
Introduction
Prosocial behaviour includes voluntary acts intended to benefit others—such as helping, sharing, donating, or comforting.
It is vital for cooperation and social harmony.
1. Theoretical Background
Evolutionary View: Helping promotes survival of one’s genes (kin selection).
Social Norms:
Reciprocity norm—help those who help us.
Social responsibility norm—help those who depend on us.
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis (Batson, 1991): Genuine helping arises from empathy, not reward.
Learning Theory: Helping is learned through modelling and reinforcement.
2. Factors Influencing Helping Behaviour
(a) Situational Factors
Bystander Effect: More bystanders → less help due to diffusion of responsibility.
Time Pressure: People in a hurry help less.
Ambiguity: Clear emergencies get more help.
(b) Personal Factors
Empathy: Greater empathy increases helping.
Mood: Good mood enhances helping; guilt can also motivate it.
Personality: Agreeable, socially responsible individuals are more helpful.
Gender: Men help in heroic acts; women in nurturing situations.
(c) Environmental and Cultural Factors
Rural areas and collectivist cultures encourage more helping.
Prosocial media and social role models influence behaviour.
3. Steps in Helping Process (Latané & Darley, 1970)
Notice the event.
Interpret it as emergency.
Assume responsibility.
Decide how to help.
Take action.
Conclusion
Prosocial behaviour arises from both biological and social motivations.
Enhancing empathy, moral education, and community participation can increase helping tendencies and strengthen social bonds.
Q15. Explain the concept of conflict and discuss its causes and effects.
Introduction
Conflict occurs when two or more individuals or groups perceive their goals, interests, or values as incompatible.
It is a natural part of social life and can lead to either growth or destruction depending on how it is managed.
1. Concept
According to Thomas (1976), conflict is a “process that begins when one party perceives another has negatively affected or will affect something it cares about.”
Conflicts may be intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, or intergroup.
2. Causes of Conflict
Goal Incompatibility:
When the goals of two individuals or groups oppose each other (e.g., labour–management disputes).
Limited Resources:
Scarcity of rewards, jobs, or recognition can cause competition.
Role Ambiguity and Power Differences:
Overlapping roles or unequal authority create tension.
Communication Barriers:
Misunderstandings, rumours, or lack of transparency fuel conflicts.
Personality Differences:
Aggressive, dominant, or rigid personalities clash more frequently.
Ideological or Cultural Differences:
Values, beliefs, or political ideologies may conflict between groups.
3. Effects of Conflict
Positive (Functional) Effects
Encourages problem-solving and innovation.
Increases awareness of issues and enhances group cohesion when handled constructively.
Strengthens negotiation and decision-making skills.
Negative (Dysfunctional) Effects
Causes stress, hostility, low morale, and reduced productivity.
Leads to group fragmentation or violence if unresolved.
Can destroy relationships and organisational harmony.
Conclusion
Conflict is not always harmful—it can promote change if managed well.
Understanding its causes and effects helps individuals and organisations resolve disputes constructively, ensuring growth and cooperation.
Q16. Explain the concept of group dynamics and cohesion.
Introduction
Group dynamics refers to the patterns of interaction, influence, and relationships that occur among members within a group.
Cohesion is the emotional bonding that keeps members united and committed to the group’s goals.
1. Concept of Group Dynamics
Introduced by Kurt Lewin (1943), who viewed a group as a system of interdependent parts.
It studies how groups form, function, influence members, and respond to change.
Includes processes like communication, leadership, norms, conformity, cooperation, and decision-making.
2. Importance of Group Dynamics
Determines group performance and effectiveness.
Influences individual motivation and satisfaction.
Affects leadership emergence and conflict resolution.
Promotes understanding of social influence and team culture.
3. Group Cohesion
Defined as the degree of attraction members feel toward each other and the group as a whole.
High cohesion → strong unity, cooperation, and loyalty.
Influenced by:
Interpersonal attraction (liking among members).
Shared goals and values.
Group success and pride.
Frequency of interaction and communication.
External threats (increase internal unity).
4. Relationship between Dynamics and Cohesion
Healthy group dynamics foster trust and open communication, strengthening cohesion.
Conversely, poor communication or leadership weakens group bonds and efficiency.
Conclusion
Group dynamics and cohesion are vital for teamwork, leadership, and organisational success.
When managed well, they lead to effective performance, high morale, and long-term group stability.
Q17. Describe leadership styles and the role of communication in group performance.
Introduction
Leadership is the process of influencing and directing the activities of group members toward goal achievement.
Effective leaders combine suitable styles of leadership with clear communication to improve group functioning.
1. Leadership Styles
Autocratic (Authoritarian)
Leader makes all decisions; members follow instructions.
Useful in emergencies or when quick decisions are required.
May reduce creativity and satisfaction.
Democratic (Participative)
Leader involves members in decision-making.
Promotes cooperation, motivation, and morale.
Most effective for long-term teamwork.
Laissez-faire (Free-rein)
Minimal supervision; members make independent decisions.
Encourages creativity but may cause disorganisation.
Transformational Leadership
Inspires followers by vision and personal example; raises morale and motivation.
Transactional Leadership
Based on rewards and punishments; effective in structured organisations.
2. Role of Communication in Group Performance
Information Sharing: Keeps members informed about goals and progress.
Coordination: Aligns individual tasks and prevents duplication of effort.
Feedback and Motivation: Clear communication boosts morale and trust.
Conflict Reduction: Open dialogue resolves misunderstandings.
Decision-making: Exchange of ideas enhances creativity and consensus.
Conclusion
Leadership and communication are inseparable.
A leader who communicates clearly, listens actively, and fosters participation ensures high cohesion, motivation, and productivity in any group.
Q18. Explain the process of attitude formation.
Introduction
An attitude is a learned tendency to evaluate an object, person, or issue favourably or unfavourably.
Attitude formation involves acquiring evaluative beliefs and feelings through learning and socialisation.
1. Major Processes of Attitude Formation
Classical Conditioning
Pairing an object with a positive or negative stimulus forms an association.
Example: Advertisements link a product with pleasant music or celebrities.
Operant Conditioning
Attitudes are strengthened through reinforcement (praise, approval) or weakened by punishment.
Example: A child praised for politeness develops a positive attitude toward good manners.
Observational Learning (Modeling)
People adopt attitudes by observing parents, peers, or media figures.
Central in Bandura’s Social Learning Theory.
Direct Experience
Personal encounters strongly shape attitudes.
Example: A positive hospital experience leads to a favourable attitude toward health workers.
Social and Cultural Influences
Family, school, religion, and media provide value systems that guide attitude formation.
Group Membership and Reference Groups
We internalise the attitudes of groups we belong to or aspire to join to gain acceptance.
Cognitive Processes
Individuals seek logical consistency; they adopt beliefs that fit with existing values and self-concepts.
2. Importance of Attitude Formation
Predicts social behaviour, voting, and consumer choices.
Helps in designing persuasive communication and behaviour-change programmes.
Conclusion
Attitudes are formed through learning, experience, and social interaction.
Understanding their formation enables educators, counsellors, and policymakers to foster positive values and constructive social behaviour.
Q1. Mass Psychology
Mass psychology studies the behaviour, emotions, and thinking of large groups or crowds.
According to Gustave Le Bon (1895), individuals in a crowd lose self-control and become part of a “collective mind,” acting emotionally and impulsively.
Modern views see mass behaviour as guided by shared goals, leaders, and social norms rather than pure irrationality.
It explains phenomena like riots, public opinion, propaganda, and social movements.
Q2. Fundamental Attribution Error
The Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) is the tendency to overestimate personal (dispositional) factors and underestimate situational causes when judging others’ behaviour.
Example: assuming someone is rude because they are ill-mannered, ignoring that they may be stressed.
Coined by Ross (1977), this bias reflects how observers favour personality explanations while ignoring external constraints.
It leads to unfair judgments and stereotyping in daily life.
Q3. Reciprocity-of-Liking Rule
The reciprocity-of-liking rule states that people tend to like those who express liking toward them.
When we learn that someone appreciates or respects us, we develop positive feelings in return.
This mutual liking strengthens friendships, romantic relationships, and teamwork.
It is a key factor in interpersonal attraction and demonstrates how positive feedback enhances social bonds.
Q4. Primacy vs. Recency Effect
These are order effects in social perception and memory:
Primacy effect: earlier information has greater influence on impressions.
Recency effect: most recent information is remembered or weighted more heavily.
Example: in interviews, the first or last candidate may be judged more favourably due to order bias.
These effects show how presentation sequence shapes judgment and decision-making.
Q5. Cultural Patterning
Cultural patterning refers to how culture shapes people’s beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours.
Members of a culture share common norms and values that guide their social interactions and worldviews.
It explains why individuals from different societies respond differently to similar social situations.
Social psychologists use it to study cross-cultural variations in conformity, emotion, and communication.
Q6. Low-Ball Technique
The Low-Ball technique is a persuasive compliance strategy where a person first agrees to a small or attractive offer, and later extra costs or conditions are added.
Because of the initial commitment, people tend to continue complying.
Example: a salesperson offers a product at a low price, then reveals hidden fees.
It works through commitment and cognitive consistency principles.
Q7. Characteristics of Attitude
Learned: acquired through experience and socialisation.
Relatively stable: consistent over time but can change.
Evaluative: express approval or disapproval.
Organised: have cognitive, affective, and behavioural components.
Predictive: influence future behaviour.
These features make attitudes central to understanding human social actions.
Q8. Characteristics of Group
Two or more interacting individuals.
Shared goals and interdependence.
Group norms and roles guide behaviour.
Sense of belonging and identification.
Communication patterns and leadership.
These characteristics make groups structured, enduring, and influential in shaping behaviour.
Q9. Manifestations of Prejudice
Prejudice appears in multiple forms:
Verbal abuse – slurs, ridicule.
Avoidance – refusing contact with out-group members.
Discrimination – denying jobs, housing, or rights.
Physical aggression or violence.
Institutional bias – laws or practices that disadvantage certain groups.
These manifestations perpetuate inequality and social tension.
Q10. Cognitive Algebra / Heider’s Balance Theory
Cognitive Algebra: proposed by Anderson (1971); people combine information about others using a kind of “mental averaging.” Overall impression = average of positive and negative traits.
Heider’s Balance Theory (1946): people seek cognitive consistency among person (P), other (O), and object (X).
Balanced when all three relations are positive or two are negative and one positive.
Imbalance causes tension → motivates attitude change.
Q11. Normative Social Influence
Normative social influence occurs when people conform to gain social approval or avoid rejection by others.
It is driven by the desire to be liked and accepted rather than to be correct.
Example: agreeing with friends’ opinions to fit in, even when privately disagreeing.
This influence produces compliance, not necessarily true belief change, and is a major reason behind conformity in Asch’s line experiment (1951).
Q12. Halo Effect
The Halo Effect is a cognitive bias in which an overall positive impression of a person influences our judgment of their specific traits.
Example: assuming an attractive person is also intelligent and kind.
Coined by Thorndike (1920), this effect shows how first impressions and appearance distort objectivity in evaluation—especially in education, hiring, and media.
Q13. Social Facilitation
Social facilitation refers to improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.
First demonstrated by Triplett (1898) in cyclists performing better when racing together.
However, Zajonc (1965) explained that presence of others increases arousal, which enhances dominant responses—improving simple tasks but impairing difficult ones.
Q14. Groupthink
Groupthink is a faulty decision-making process in cohesive groups that prioritise unanimity over realistic evaluation.
Proposed by Irving Janis (1972), it occurs when members suppress dissent and ignore alternatives to maintain harmony.
Symptoms include illusion of invulnerability, stereotyping outsiders, and self-censorship.
It leads to poor, risky decisions, as seen in political or organisational failures.
Q15. Empathy–Altruism Hypothesis
Proposed by Batson (1991), this hypothesis states that empathy (feeling another’s distress) produces genuine altruistic motivation to help, regardless of self-benefit.
When empathy is low, helping may depend on expected rewards or avoidance of guilt.
It distinguishes true altruism from egoistic helping and forms a key principle in studies of prosocial behaviour.
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